As we approach the present time it becomes more difficult to set up the lines of the history of European integration. Especially because it is a very complicated unfinished process, which is narrowly linked with the ongoing World history. Nevertheless in Teaching Guide 12 we will try to understand why the European Union appeared and which are the main obstacles that prevent its 27 Member States to become together a World Power. Something more and more necessary in the in the present complicated international because of the Wars in Ukraine and in Palestine, and now due to the fierce attacks of Donald Trump.
In Teaching Guide 11 we saw how evolved Communitarian Europe before the Fall of the Berlin
Wall and the disappearance of the Iron Curtain. And how after De Gaulle's retirement
from the French Government in 1969 there was a relaunching of the European
integration in which important steps were taken.
A: Relaunching
the Integration Process (1969-1991)
After De Gaulle
abandoned the Government in France on 28 April 1969, the mood in Europe was
again favourable to Communitarian integration, as proved by:
1) The first
enlargement of the European Communities: 1973 (UK, Ireland and Denmark),
1981 (Greece) and 1986 (Spain and Portugal) that brought Communitarian Europe
from 6 to 12 Member States.
2) The creation of
the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) that established a direct
relationship between Communitarian Institutions and the European Regions
(without the intervention of the Member States).
4) The elimination of borders and customs between Communitarian Member States through the Schengen Agreement (14 June 1985. Effective 26 March 1995).
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5) The relaunch of the European Common Market by the Single European Act (1986-1987).
Even so, things were
going to change drastically in 1989, after the Fall of the Berlin Wall and the disappearance of the Communists
regimes of Eastern Europe. The German reunification (1990) and
the disappearance of the USSR (December 1991) had a direct impact
in the European Integration process, as the Three European Communities were
replaced by one single entity: the EUROPEAN UNION
B: The
Communitarian Reaction to the end of the Cold War: The birth of the European
Union (The Maastricht Treaty).
As you can
see European integration was on its way when on the 9 of November 1989 the
Berlin Wall fell. And this crucial event not only changed international
equilibrium at the World level but opened wide perspectives for a stronger
European Integration, starting with an expansion towards Eastern Europe
countries that were since 1948 beyond the “Iron Curtain”.
Communitarian
Europe was lucky to have a great President of the European Commission, Jacques
Delors (1985-1994). He was already responsible for the signing of the Single
European Act (1986) but after 1989 he had the idea of substituting the three
European Communities (ECSC, EEC and EAEC) by a single Community: the European
Union.
As Delors was well aware of the importance of the end of the Cold War he decided to re-found the Communitarian Europe through a new Treaty that was signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht on the 7th of February of 1992. The European Union was born.
The signing of the
Maastricht Treaty
Today the Treaty of the European Union (TEU) or
Maastricht Treaty (1992) constitute with the Treaty that created the EEC, now
called (TFEU) Treaty on the Functioning
of the European Union (1957), the legal basis of Communitarian Europe, the
closest we have got so far to a Common European Constitution.
The brand
new European Union had a conventional legal tool to advance on European
integration. The problem was how to make it effective. The first step was to
pass from the Unanimity Voting imposed by the De Gaulle in the Luxembourg
Compromise of 1966 to the principle of the Qualified Majority Voting.
The European
leaders that signed the Maastricht Treaty
C. Unanimity
Voting vs Qualified Majority Voting and the Pillar Structure
The
strengthening of the integration process required on the first place to push
for the restriction of the Unanimity Voting approved in the Luxembourg
Compromise (1966) and get back to the Majority Voting with the restriction of
Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) a mechanism used to take decisions without the
need for unanimity but which go beyond a simple majority of members, that is it
requires the approval of a certain number of States representing a
minimum percentage of population.
There are
two forms of qualified majority: standard and reinforced. For the former,
decisions are adopted if at least 55% of member states – meaning 15 out of 27 –
representing at least 65% of the EU population, approve. For the latter, at
least 72% of member states must approve, representing the same proportion of
the EU population. Abstention counts as a vote against.
A standard
qualified majority is the ordinary procedure used for most EU legislation,
whereas a reinforced qualified majority is used if the Council is acting on a proposal that has not come from the Commission or High Representative for
Foreign Affairs, or when electing key posts like the President of the European
Central Bank or the High Representative for Foreign Affairs
In order to convince
the Governments to accept the QMV, Delors invented the “PILLAR STRUCTURE”. QMV
was the rule in the First Pillar (Community Pillar) corresponding to the three
existing Treaties in 1992. The other two pillars (The Second pillar dealt with
Common Foreign and Security Policy, and the Third pillar addressed Police and Judicial
Cooperation in Criminal Matters) followed the Intergovernmental principle,
which meant that in these areas the decision-making procedures essentially
followed the Unanimity Principle.
+2.+Pillar+COMMON.jpg)
The Maastricht
Pillar Structure
D. Towards the
East
The second
difficulty for strengthening European integration was the relationship with the
European countries that had been for decades on the other side of the Iron
Curtain. The big problem that European Integration faced after the Fall
of the Berlin Wall was what to do with the countries of Central and Eastern
Europe (CEEC) that suffered from underdeveloped economies resulting from being almost
four decades under communist regimes controlled by the USSR. Some EU Member
States resisted to the idea of a rapid integration with the argument that it
would affect seriously the balance of an integrated Europe. Some others, led by
Germany, wanted at any cost to integrate these States as new Members. In fact the
process started with the early recognition by Germany of Croatia as an
independent State since January 1992. For some it reminded the old idea
of Mitteleuropa that pursued
consolidating German pre-eminence. This is why some countries were reluctant
to it.
Mitteleuropa
The Maastricht
Treaty, which was the consequence of the end of the Cold War was initially
signed by 12 Member States. But soon new States were lining up to join. In 1995
the EU had 15 members (with the integration of Austria, Finland and Sweden).
But 9 years later, in 2004, this number was raised to 25 Members with the
integration of 10 new States, most from Eastern Europe: Poland, the Czech
Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, the Slovak
Republic and Slovenia. In 2007 Bulgaria and Romania joined, bringing the number
of Member States to 27. And in 2013 the peak of 28 Member States was reached
with the integration of Croatia. This number was brought down to 27 again since
January 31, 2020 with the leave of the UK because of the Brexit.
The EU in 2025
E: Reorganizing
the decision making procedure in such a large EU: The Lisbon Treaty (2009)
The acceptance of
this huge enlargement put the EU in serious trouble as it badly needed a
profound reorganization in terms of decision making for avoiding collapse.
Because having 27 Governments to agree on something was not a piece of
cake. So the Treaties had to be renegotiated and amended. This is what
happened with the Amsterdam Treaty (1997), the Nice Treaty (2001) followed by
the failure of the Treaty called “A Constitution for Europe” (2005). Finally
the restructuration of the EU was made possible by the approval of the Lisbon
Treaty in 2007 (that entered into force on 1st December 2009).
The heads of
Government of the EU after signing the Lisbon Treaty
G: The
Institutional Mess of the European Union.
The European
Integration process did not end with the enactment of the Lisbon Treaty. The
European Union is still not a strong World Power because we have not been able
to agree on the creation of a Federal European State, commanding over the 27
Member States. The EU states together because the Judicial Power of
Communitarian Europe since the early 1960's (concretely since sentence on the
Costa vs. Enel Case 15 July 1964) have created a "Legal Federation." We
are not a political federation but a judicial federation, because the Luxembourg court
declared that Communitarian Law is superior to National Law. Thanks to this
"judicial decision" the EU stays together.
As you can imagine
a Judicial Union is far less strong than a political federation. And this is
why the EU has a lot of trouble for becoming a real World Power. Because, to
start with, it has not a strong Executive. And this is a big difference with the
powerful Presidential system of the United States Federal Union.
The US has
three powers: Legislative Power (the Congress integrated by the Assembly of
States -Senate- and the Assembly of Citizens Representatives -the House of
Representatives), the Supreme Court and the President (POTUS). The EU has also
three powers but they are much weaker. The reason is that there are two
Legislative powers (one representing the integrated Europe: the European
Parliament and another that represents the Member States: the Council of Ministers),
and two Executives (one representing the integrated Europe: the European
Commission, and another the Member States: the European Council. The only
unique power is the Judicial represented by the Court of the European Union in
Luxembourg, and this is why it is the most powerful of the three.
In fact the
institutions of the European Union are not only quite complicated to deal with
but they are not very efficient in terms of decision making and implementing
these decisions. In the US President Trump in a few weeks it has been able to
turn the World upside down. The EU Executive cannot do that.
Let's see the
three main powers of the organization of Communitarian Europe: 1) The
appearance of a European Parliament; 2) The creation of a European Court of
Justice and 3) The lack of a powerful common European executive.
1) The EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT
It appears in
1962. But it derives from two former legislatures: The Common Assembly of
ECSC (1952-1958) that was in Strasbourg though its secretariat was in
Luxembourg where were the headquarters of the High Authority. After the
creation of the EAEC and the EEC the Common Assembly became initially the European
Parliamentary Assembly in Strasbourg (1958-1962).
The European
Parliamentary Assembly ended up becoming in 1962 the European
Parliament. Initially its headquarters were in Strasbourg but
it also had offices in Luxembourg and Brussels. In
1989 it was decided to create a second building in
Brussels behind the Gare Léopold. The new building was inaugurated in 1993, and
named Paul-Henri Spaak Building in 1999. Most of the EP's work
is performed in Brussels, though twelve monthly part-sessions -including the
session for budget approval, are held in Strasbourg. EP
committees ordinarily meet in Brussels.
Since 1979 the
European Parliament is elected by the citizens of the Member States. The
legislature lasts 5 years. There have been so far 9 legislatures. In
2024 (6-9 June) there will new elections for the tenth legislature. The EP does
vote the Communitarian Budget, but also control the government of
the EU, as it approves the nomination of the President of the
Commission, and could proceed to a vote of no confidence, but also
exercises with the Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) the Legislative
Power of the EU.
The Legislative
Power in the EU
The EP is
not alone legislating because the States are directly part of the legislative
process through the "Council of Ministers". It is integrated by the
National Ministers of the 27 Member States in a concrete area (Economy,
Education, Agriculture, etc). In this way the States counterbalance the action
of the European Parliament. Commission the councils of ministers of the three
European Communities (ECSC, EAEC and EEC) merged into a single “Council of
European Communities”.
Since the Treaty
of Maastricht (1992-1993) that created the European Union, the "Council of
Ministers” became the Council of the European Union, also named “The
Council”.
2) The EUROPEAN
COURT OF JUSTICE.
It derives from
the original Court of Justice of the ECSC (1952-1958). After
the Treaty of Rome it became the Court of Justice of the European
Communities (1958-2009). In 2009 it became the actual Court
of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) .It is located in
Luxembourg.
The Court of
Justice of the European Union has 1 judge by each EU country, that is actually
27, plus 11 advocates general. It does not apply directly Communitarian Law, as
this task correspond to the national judges of the 27 Member States. It's main function
is to rule over the conflicts between National and Communitarian Law (Decide
if prevails the European rule or the National one: Conventionality
control). In fact the CJEU is the most important institution of the
European Union, as it has enacted the superiority of Communitarian
Law over National Law of the Member States, since the early
1960's.
The first European Community, the ECSC had an executive called the High Authority that had its headquarters in Luxembourg. The Treaty of Rome 1957 created two new communities: the EAEC and the EEC. Both Communities had their own executive powers called "Commissions". The Executives of the three European Communities were reunited in one through the Executive Merger Treaty (signed in 8 April 1965, but entered into force on 1 July 1967). The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 and opened the way to create a single Executive for Communitarian Europe, a single administration: the European Commission, that has his seat in the Berlaymont Buiding in Brussels.
The President of
the European Commission has its ministers. They are called Commissioners and
they are 27, one by each EU Country.
The Ursula von der
Leyen Commission (2024-2029)
The problem
of the Commission is that it is not the only Executive Power of the EU. The
States form their own Communitarian Executive that counterbalances the action
of the European Commission. It is integrated by the heads of the Government of
the 27 Member States. It is called the European Council (EUCO). Beware do
not confuse the European Council and Council of the European Union and
the though they have the same logo, they are not at all the same
institutions. The first is the Executive Power and the second is part
of the Legislative Power of the EU. These confusing denominations
make the EU even more complex and confusing.
But where
does the European Council comes from? Straight from the reluctance that former
French President Charles De Gaulle had against the whole process of European
Integration.
The De Gaulle
parenthesis and the origins of the EUCO
You already know
that the arrival to power of General Charles De Gaulle in France (1958-1969)
opened up a parenthesis in European integration with the Empty Chair Crisis, in
which France boycotted all the meetings of the “councils” of the European
Communities, that was only solved after reaching the Luxembourg Compromise (30
January 1966), that brought back the principle of the Unanimity voting, instead
of the Qualified Majority voting principle through the Luxembourg Compromise
(January 1966).
It was
precisely De Gaulle’s resentment at the domination of supranational
institutions in the European Commission brought the principle of informal
meetings of the leaders of Communitarian Europe. After the Luxembourg
Compromise European leaders started to meet on summits. The first one was held in The Hague in 1969.
Informal Summits became formalized as the European
Council (EUCO) for the first time in the summit held in Dublin (10-11
March 1973). It received official recognition in the European Treaties for
the first time in the Single European Act (17-28 February 1986,
entering into force 1st July 1987). The role of EUCO was regulated
for the first time in the Lisbon Treaty (2007-2009) that established a
minimum of 2 meetings per year (the average being 3).
But things got
more complex since the enactment of the Treaty of Lisbon (approved 2007,
entered into force on 1st December 2009) as it created the figure of the
Permanent President of the European Council. Since then the EUCO has two
Presidents: one permanent and a non permanent that changes every 6 months.
Today the permanent President of the EUCO is the Portuguese politician Antonio Costa.
Antonio Costa
The crisis of the
"Sofa Gate" (7 April 2021)
The wonder is that
this mess works. Though not always smoothly as a result that as you already
know the EU has in fact two governments: One representing Integrated Europe
(Communitarian method), with the European Parliament as Legislative Assembly
and the Commission as Executive, and another representing the States
(Intergovernmental method) with the European Council of Ministers now called
the European Council as an interstate Legislative Assembly and an Interstate
executive the Permanent President of the European Council, created by the
Lisbon Treaty.
The
existence of two Executives is not a simple thing and can create problems like
it the crisis called the clash of the Sofa Gate (7 April
2021), provoked by male chauvinist Islamic President of Turkey Recep
Tayyip Erdogan that put the first Woman President of the
Commission Ursula von der Leyen in an humiliating position, as he
put only one seat beside him for Charles Michel the Belgian former President of
the European Council, leaving Ursula von der Leyen, the President of the
Commission to sit in a distant sofa.
Istambul, 7 April 2021
Besides this unacceptable patriarchal approach, the problem is to decide who represent the EU: the Executive of integrated Europe or the Executive representing the Member States.
On top of
that 2 years later (2023) Charles Michel was tackled by the European Parliament
because he had been spending too much money in his official travels. The 47
year old former Belgian prime ministers was concretely criticized for spending
too much time and money traveling and too little on preparing and running the
EUCO's, the core function of his job.
May be his ego is
excessive. In any case it is quite expensive. Can we afford so many presidents
of the EU?
H. Could the EU
become a World power?
The
complexity of the functioning of the EU have developed a lot of Euro sceptics
that think we should get rid of Communitarian Europe and recover the full
sovereignty of its Member States. Especially after Brexit occurred.
But on the other hand other think that UK leave is a great opportunity for a closer integration as the British had never been fair players in the European Integration game. Now, they say, it is the time for moving forward a closer integration, aiming at a federal type of integration. If we look to the facts, the future of the EU might not be so dark, as the COVID-19 and the Ukrainian War crisis have just proven. Now the hostile attitude of President Trump is creating a great opportunity for reinforcing the cooperation between the 27 EU Member States.
The vaccination
policy of the EU was slow but now population of EU Member States is the best
protected in the world. And the EU has granted important economic aids to
relieve Member States Economies.
Things are
however different concerning the Communitarian response to the Russian invasion
of Ukraine. Initially there was certainly a strong and quick unified response
of EU Member States to Russian aggression on Ukraine. EU Member States reacted
sending weapons to Ukraine, and approving packages of sanctions against Russia,
especially towards oligarchs that surround Putin. In some weeks European
integration advanced more than in the last 30 years.
But as the War
goes on some Member States have started to become reluctant to keep on helping
Ukraine to the point that today Putin is quite close to win the war. Once again
Ukrainians would not be helped by Europeans but by the United States, which
Congress approved in April 2024 an aid of 60.000 Millions dollars for Ukraine.
The arrival of Donald Trump to the US Presidency and its decision to stop US aid to Ukraine has however changed the situation completely and has pushed the more powerful EU member States and the UK to provide direct European military aid to Zelenski.
On the Brussels table again is the creation of a common European Army. And in the immediate future the sending of troops to Ukraine by France, Germany and the UK. Should the EU be grateful to Donald Trump. “MEGN” Make Europe Great Now. For stopping a situation ion which Europeans we are at the mercy of Trump, Putin or Xi Jiping.
CHRONOLOGY:
a) The end of the
Iron Curtain
1989, 9 November Fall of the Berlin Wall.
12 September.
Signing in Moscow of the Two Plus Four Agreement. England, France, the United
States and the Soviet Union renounce the rights they had vis-a-vis Germany
since 1945.
3 October.
Reunification of Germany.
b) The Dissolution
of the Soviet Union.
1991,
9 April
Georgia declares Independence.
24
August Ukraine Act of Independence. Approved by referendum 1st
December (92%).
25 August
Declaration of Independence of Belarus.
1991,
8 December:
Belavezha Accords.
Rejection of
the Treaty of Creation of the USSR (signed 29 December, effective 30 December
1922). The Representatives of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declare that the
Soviet Union had ceased to exist and decide to establish the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) in its place.
21 December.
Alma-Ata Protocol.
The
representatives of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan. Moldova,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan agree to join Belarus, Russia and
Ukraine in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)..
Turkmenistan and
Ukraine never ratified. Ukraine ceased to participate in CIS in 2014 as a
result of the Russian occupation of Crimea, and withdrew representatives from
all statutory bodies of CIS in 2018 as a result of the War in Donbass.
25 December : Retaining
the Soviet Union's UN’s seat as permanent member of the Security Council
Boris Yeltsin
inform the UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of the dissolution of
the Soviet Union and that Russia would, as its successor state, continue the
Soviet Union's membership in the United Nations with the name of Russian
Federation.
1992,
January 31
After the UN
Secretary-General circulated Yeltsin’s request, and as any UN Member State
formulated any objection, the Russian Federation took the Soviet Union's UN
seat as permanent member of the Security Council. On January 31, 1992, Russian
Federation President Yeltsin personally took part in a Security Council meeting
as representative of the Russian Federation.
c) The Creation of
the EU (1992-2002)
The diagram of the
European Union Powers
1992, 7 February.
Signing in Maastricht (Netherlands) of the European Union Treaty.
It comes into force, once all ratification procedures are
finalized, on 1 November 1993.
1994, 20 July
Alexander Lukashenko becomes President of Belarus. Still in Office though the
2020 election is widely contested.
1995
1 January.
Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. The Europe of the 15 is born.
1997
2 April: Creation
of the Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus.
8-9 July. Madrid
Summit. 15th NATO Summit. The Organization invites Hungary, Poland and the
Czech Republic to join the alliance. The Russian Federation agrees.
2 October. The foreign
ministers of the 15 sign the Amsterdam Treaty. It enters into force on 1
May 1967.
1998, 1st June Creation of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt.
1999,
19 June. Bologna
Declaration. European education ministers approve the creation of the European
Higher Education Area, to be fully implemented by December 31, 2010.
8 December:
Creation of the Union State of Russia and Belarus. New Confederation.
31st December Putin is named head of the Russian Federation.
2000, 7 December.
Ratification of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union,
adopted on 2 October.
2001, 26 February.
The Treaty of Nice is signed, setting the majorities necessary to make
decisions after the successive expansions carried out. It comes into force on 1
February 2003 after the ratification procedures are finalized.
2002
1 January. The
euro enters into force. On February 28 it becomes the sole, official currency,
the day that Spain occupies the presidency of the European Council (previously:
1989, 1995) for the third time.
23 July. The ECSC
is dissolved.
d) The EU’s expansion
to the East
2004, 1 May.
The disappearance
of the Iron Curtain and dissolution of the USSR enables an important expansion
of the EU to the East. Besides the integration of Cyprus and Malta, 9 States
that were under the Soviet influence join the EU: Poland, the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia. The EU
has 25 Member States.
29 October. Rome.
The heads of state and government and their respective ministers of foreign
affairs sign a treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. Despite its name
it is not a Supranational Constitution, but only a rearrangement of former
Comunitarian Treaties.
22 November:
Orange Revolution in Ukraine (Until 23 January 2005). Pro EU and pro NATO
leaders Victor Yushchenko and Yulia Timoshenko to power.
2005
29 May. In a
referendum the French reject the Constitution Treaty.
1 June. The people
of the Netherlands also refuse to ratify the Constitutional Treaty.
2007
1 January.
Another two former
countries that were under the influence of the Soviet Union join the EU:
Bulgaria and Romania. The Europe of the 27 is born.
10 February:
Munich Speech. Vladimir Putin’s Speech in Munich Security Conference in which
he explains his position on the International politics of Russia. He criticizes
the United States monopolistic dominance in global relations. He accepts that
Ukraine can join the EU but not NATO.
Putin speaking in
Munich
3 December.
Signing of the
Treaty of Lisbon, which replaces the Constitutional Treaty from three years
earlier.
A version of the
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union is officially promulgated
on 12 December 2007 in Strasbourg. After the signing of the Lisbon Treaty the
Charter becomes binding upon all states
2008
August:
Russo-Georgian War. On August 26 Russia recognizes Abkhazia and South Ossetia
as separate republics. Georgia Government consider both as occupied
territories. And break Diplomatic relationships with the Russian
Federation.
2009
1 December. The
Treaty of Lisbon enters into force after the 27 ratification processes are
completed.
2013,
1 July. The EU
keeps expanding East as Croatia joins the EU as its 28th member state.
So far the EU
enlargement concerned European States beyond the Iron Curtain. So the Russian
Federation was not happy but accepted. The problems began when Member States of
the CIS tried to get closer to Communitarian Europe.
Ukraine crisis
began. In February 2013 the Ukranian Parliament (Verkhovna Rada) approved
by an overwhelming majority a political agreement and a free trade agreement
with the EU. Ukrainian President Yanukovych refused to sign the agreement and
prefer to set closer ties with the Russian Federation and the Eurasian Economic
Union.
21 November:
Beginning of the Maidan Revolution (Independence square) in
Kyiv. “Revolution of Dignity”. Until 23 February 2014. 130 killed on both sides
(including 13 police officers)
2014
20 February :
Russia invades Crimea. (Annexation 18 March 2014).
22-25 May: 8th election of the European Parliament. For the first time the European parties have named a candidate for presiding the European Commission. The European Popular Party wins the election and his candidate Jean Claude Juncker becomes President of the Commission (1st November).
5 September: First
Minsk Agreement searching for ending the war in the Donbass Region between
Ukraine and Russia with the mediation of France and Germany. Minsk II was
signed on 12 February 2015
e) The Brexit,
Covid-19 and the Russo-Ukrainian War Crisis
2016:
June 23:
Brexit referendum. The UK votes for leaving the EU. 51.9% of UK voters
(17.410,742 votes) were for leaving and 48.1 (16.141.241 votes) for remaining
in the EU. By territories the result was: England 53,4% for Brexit and 46,4%
for Bremain; Northern Ireland 44,2% for Brexit and 55,8% for Bremain; Scotland
38% for Brexit and 62% for Bremain; Wales 52,5% for Brexit and 47,5% for
Bremain. Gibraltar 4% for Brexit and 96% for Bremain. London: 39.1% for
Brexit 59.9% for Bremain.
2017
October:
Independentists fail to declare the Independence of Catalonia.
2020:
January 31: The UK
leaves the EU.
March: COVID
Pandemic extends all over. The EU centralizes vaccination. It is slow but it is
free for citizens of the EU Member States.
July: The European
Council of the EU agrees to a massive recovery fund of 750 billion called “Next
Generation EU” (NGEU) to support member economies states hit by COVID-19
Pandemic. The NGEU fund goes over the years 2021-2023 and is tied to the
2021-20227 budget of the EU(MFF). The comprehensive packages of NGEU and MFF
will reach the size of 1824,3 billion euros.
Also the European Investment Bank Group decides to establish a 25 billion euros Pan-European Guarantee fund, that could grow up to 200 billion euros.
26 November the
European Parliament votes massively againts recognizing the right to self
determination of Regions (487 no v. 170 yes).
2021:
January COVID
Crisis: Ursula von der Leyen is criticized for EU’s response to the Covid
crisis. She says that the EU was late to authorize vaccines , but it was the
wise and prudent thing to do.
7 April: Sofa Gate
Crisis. On an official visit of the EU to Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan that put
the first Woman President of the Commission Ursula von der Leyen in an
humiliating position with Charles Michel the Belgian actual President of the
European Council, as there was just one seat close to President Erdogan, and
von der Leyen had to sit in a sofa.
June: Nearly half
of the Population of the EU had received at least one dose of COVID-19
vaccination.
2022
21 February:
Russia recognizes the Luhansk and Donetsk people’s republics. On the following
day Vladimir Putin declare that the Minsk Agreements (of 2014) no longer
existed.
24 February:
Russia invades Ukraine. Since then the EU has been adopting 5 packages of
sanctions (23, 25, 28 February, 2 15 March and 8 April) against Russia,
especially against 217 individuals and 18 entities.
27 February:
German Chancellor Olaf Scholz sharply increases Germany spending on defense to
more than 2% of its economic output. Russia’s Gross National Product in
December 2020 was 4.036 USD billion (146 million people) and Germany’s 4.597.
(3 million people).
June Ukraine is granted “candidate statute” for
integrating the EU.
2023
April Former Belgian Prime Minister and
current President of the European Council Charles Michel faces growing backlash
over his "excessive" travel expenses, after EU budgetary officials
asked for a 27.5% budget increase for his office from 2023 to 2024.
2024
November 5 Donald Trump is elected 47th POTUS
2025
21 January Donald
Trump takes office. Immediately he decides to withdraw US aid to Ukraine and
decide to rise tariffs on European products as part of his World Trade War.
23 February German Elections. Friedrich Merz the CDU/CSU candidate is the new Chancellor.
INSTRUCTIONS:
First read the text included in your Materials (pages 292-310) before
proceeding to answer the Concrete Questions, the Concepts and the General
Questions.
Concerning the
Basic Chronology (pages 314-316) you should get familiar with the dates from
November 1989 to Russian invasion of Ukraine (24 February 2022).
TOPIC FOR
DISCUSSION IN CLASS: Would European
States be better off without the European Union in a multipolar World?
Please consider
the following aspects:
1. Consider what were the historical
circumstances that led to the creation of the European Union in 1992.
2. Take into consideration why were signed
the Treaties of Amsterdam (1997), the Treaty of Nice (2001) and the Lisbon
Treaty (2007-2009).
3. Why the Treaty A Constitution for Europe
failed in 2005? Was it really a “Constitution”?
4. Is the European Union a Legal Person
distinct from the 27 Member States?
5. Is there such a thing as a European
Citizenship?
6. In what measure the creation of the
Creation of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt in 1998, and .of the Euro in
2002 has created some strong financial difficulties for some Member States?
7. Is the UK going
to be better off out of the EU? And the EU without the UK?
8. Could European
countries individually would be able to face a Russian invasion?
9. Is it possible
that the EU reach the Federal Stage? Which are the main obstacles on your
opinion?
