1. Introduction
Today we are going to deal with the fourth pillar of European Civilization.
The first pillar was the Greek Culture, the Second the Roman Organization, the
Third the Germanic Approach, and the fourth is Christianity. It doesn’t matter if you are baptized or if you
practice or don’t go to Mass on Sundays. European
culture has been deeply influenced by Christianism and its political side:
the Roman Catholic Church. Why? Because after the disappearance of the Western
Roman Empire in 476, the imperial baton
was taken over by the “Roman Catholic Church”, and more concretely by its
head: the Pope. It is highly significant that the head of the Catholic
Church, the Pope (from Greek “Pappas” : father), resides precisely in
Rome, and that even today the official language of the Vatican State is still
Latin. Isn’t it?
Benedetto Croce (1866-1952) one of the
best contemporary Italian intellectuals, a known atheist, declared that Christianism
was the greatest revolution in History
of mankind because it performed a radical metamorphosis in the centre of
the soul, in the moral conscience of
Human beings and gave to the world a new
spiritual dimension that was lacking until then. In a moment in which
slavery dominated the world, the conceptual insurrection of Christ brought the revolutionary idea that all human beings no
matter who they are deserve respect and affection. (Javier Cercas El loco de
Dios en el Fin del Mundo (2025) Random House pp.43 and 47).
And this has been going on for 2000 years. Think that the Soviet Union only lasted 69 years, from 1922 to 1991. The popes have not only been become the main catholic authority after the papacy of Gregory I (590-604), but they have their own independent monarchy: the Papal States, from 754 to 1879, and the Vatican State, also called the Holy See, since 1929.
On top of that it is extremely significant
that the Popes favoured the reappearance
of the Imperial idea in the West, to get independent from the
Eastern-Byzantine emperors. Starting with the Frankish sovereign Charlemagne in 800, and then with the
German Otto I in 962, founder of a Holy Roman Empire (First Reich)
that lasted until 1806. And then came
Napoleon (1804-1815), Bismarck and
the Second Reich (1871-1918), and finally Hitler
with its ephemeral Third Reich (1933-1945).
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Today we are going to try to understand
why Popes and Emperors for many centuries made their best to bring back the glamour of the Roman Empire,
defending the idea of “Universalism”
–that is one single ruler for all- against the political diversity installed
after the creation of the Germanic Kingdoms. Finally, Europeans ended up losing the battle of Universalism in 1648, but
the longevity of the fight would mark very deeply the European-Western
civilization. And that may be explains partly why after 1945 we Europeans are longing to become again a single political,
economical and cultural unit, through the difficult and complicated process
of European integration. Because isn’t it the purpose why the European
Union was created for?
1. The
idea that all human beings are equal
in front of God and no matter who they
are deserve respect and affection. (All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed by the United Nations General
Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 (General Assembly Resolution 217 A),
based on the French Declaration of 26 of August 1789 (Article 1).
2. The
defence of the humble and the poor. The New Testament quotes Jesus as
saying that “it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than
for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God” (Matthew 19:24, Mark 10:25, and
Luke 18:25). The same idea appears also in Qur’an7:40, "Indeed,
those who deny Our verses and are arrogant toward them – the gates of Heaven will
not be opened for them, nor will they enter Paradise until a camel enters into
the eye of a needle..."
3. Our
calendar based on the Christian Era, following an idea of the monk and
writer Dionisius Exiguus (Dyonisyus the Humble) (c. 470- c.544)
introduced the use of the Christian Era fixing the date of Our Lord’s birth as
753 years after the foundation of Rome, a date now known to be too late by four
to seven years. Years before Christ (BC) and years in the Era of Christ “Anno
Domini” (AD) “Year of the Lord”.
4. The acceptance of Aristotelian philosophy as a base of the Western
conception of the World. Thanks to the work of Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274), who adapted adapting through the
writings of Aristotle translated by the Spanish Jewish intellectual Maimonides (1135-1204) and the Spanish
Muslim intellectual Averroes
(1126-1198). Their works were translated to Latin by the Toledo’s Translators School, founded by the Castilian king Alphonse
X the Sage. Aquinas adapted Christian revelation to the real world. This is why
Catholicism is the most rationally elaborated of the three great Monotheisms:
Judaism, Christianism and Islam.
5. The modernisation of Roman Law contained in Justinian Compilation,
adapting it to the new times through “Canon
Law” that is the Law of the Catholic Church. Mainly through the Papal
Decrees (Decretals), that is the
legislation forms the Pope, creating new legal concepts and institutions. As
the European emperors did not legislate, the Popes did the job of adapting the Law to the new circumstances
during crucial centuries XI-XIII, During Papal Theocratic supremacy. The Canon
Law is since then another pillar of the European-Western legal systems.
Let’s see how all this
happened.
2. How to study Teaching Guide 4:
a) Read the corresponding text in the “Aula Virtual”.
b) Familiarize yourself with the basic Chronology of the period:
CHRONOLOGY
10.000 BC Appears the city of Jericho in the Jordan Valley.
The Era of the Patriarchs
3000 Canaan civilization appears in the
region which has become a crossroad among Egiptian, Hitite and Assirian
civilizations, known by the Greeks and the Phoenicians. Canaan and the
“Canaanites” appear frequently throughout.
1800 Abraham, originally Abram, a nomadic
shepherd abandons Mesopotamia and
goes to Canaan following God’s call. He settles in Hebron (Today in Cisjordania, Palestine). Following God’s orders he
is about to sacrifice his son Isaac in Mount Moria (Actual Temple Mount or
Esplanade of the Mosques in Jerusalem, on top of the Wailing Wall). God spares
Isaac and agrees with Abraham the First
Covenant. If you follow the divine commandments God will protect you, if
not He will punish you. The Covenant gives a moral sense to religion.
Abraham will become the common patriarch for Jews, Christians and
Muslims. In Judaism he is the founding father who begins the covenantal
relationship between the Jewish people and God. In Christianity he is the
original father of all believers whether Jewish or non-Jewish. In Islam Abraham
is a crucial link in the chain of Muslim prophets that start with Adam and
culminates in Muhammad.
Isaac will marry Rebecca and will have
twins: Esau and Jacob. One of them is Jacob. God changes its name Jacob for “Israel” after he wrestled
with the divinity –probably an angel- refusing to let go until he received a
blessing and won (Israel means: “The one who struggles with God”) (Genesis
32:29).
1700 Jews
from Canaan leave massively for Egypt.
The Exodus (1250-1050)
1250 Jews
leave Egypt under the leadership of Moses
towards the Promised Land (Exodus: the 2nd book of the Pentateuch). After Moses
death the people of Israel establish in the Promised Land structured in 12 tribes, under the government of the “Judges”. They revere
God in the Tabernacle where lies the
Arch of the Covenant.
1200 The Bible begins to be put into writing.
The Old Testament seems to have been completed around 350 BC. The Dead Sea Scrolls, found in Qumram in
1946 prove the whole Old Testament was finally finished around 165 BC. Though
the final text of the “Torah” would only be fixed by the “Masoretes”, who between the 5 and the 10th century, based in the
works of the Talmudic Schools of Jerusalem and Babylonia produced the
authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible in
Rabbinic Judaism. The Masoretic Text.
The Talmud
The Jews only consider the Law of God Torah (“The Teaching”) in five
books (Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy –Second Law in Greek). The other texts of the
39 books of the Old Testament
(Historical, Poetry and Wisdom, Major Prohets and Minor Prophets) are not
considered divine revelation. During the 1st century AD were completed the 27
books of the New Testament including
the 4 Gospels, the Acts of Apostles, Saint Paul’s Epistles, General Epistles
and Revelation (Apocalypse).
The Bible
was translated from Aramaic to Greek in the 3d century AD by a commission
of 70 translators. This edition is called the “Translation of the Seventy” or “Septuagint” or “Greek Old Testament”.
As after the first Diaspora few Jewish could read in the Hebrew language the
Jewish community needed the translation of the Bible to common Greek: Koiné Greek.
In the course of the 4th century the Bible
would be translated into Latin. The
final official version would be the translation of Saint Jerome (c. 345-420) named the Vulgate.
75 The Philistines, a Greek Immigrant group from the Aegean Sea establish
in the south coast of Canaan and found a confederation of city-states which is
referred to as Philistia. This is the origin
of the word “Palestine”. Canaan became Palestine because when the Romans
disembarked in this area the people which they met were the Philistines under
the command of Pompey. An expedition
that will lead to the conquest of Jerusalem by the Romans in 63 BC.
The Kingdom of Israel (1050-930)
1050 Samuel,
the last of the Judges cedes the command to Saul who becomes the first
king of the unified kingdom of Israel. His reign, traditionally placed in
the late eleventh century BC, marked the transition of the Israelites from a
scattered tribal society ruled by various judges to organized statehood.
Saul is strong enough to defeat first
the Canaanites in the interior and the Philistines in the coast. In the war
against the Philistine young Israeli
David kills the giant Philistine Goliath. David would become King.
1029-970 Reign of King David, who conquers Hebron (the city of Patriarch
Abraham) and finally Jerusalem itself (1000) creating a very powerful
kingdom. King David represents the height of the kingdom of Israel
The First Temple period (10th to 6th
centuries BC)
970-932 Reign of King Solomon. He substitutes the provisional Tabernacle by
a solid Temple (The First Temple), built in Jerusalem on the top of
Mount Moria (its foundations are the actual Wailing Wall).
931 The split. The once united Kingdom of
David and Solomon is divided into the Northern Kingdom (Israel, with ten tribes
of “Israelis”) and the Southern Kingdom (Judah with two tribes faithful to King
David’s line: the “Jews).
587 On July the Babylonian army of Nebudchadnezzar
takes Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple and burned down the city. Thousands
of are taken into captivity to Babylon
(Babylonian Captivity). It is the First Diaspora. It brings the
appearance of rabbis, synagogues and the first exegesis (interpretation) of the
Torah: the Midrash.
Appear also the Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel) that warn Israelis
that the destruction of Jerusalem was the consequence of sin that broke the
Covenant and call them to repentance.
The word “prophet” comes from Ancient
Greek: from pro (before/toward) and phesein (to tell); thus, a “profetes” is someone who conveys messages from the
divine to humans, including occasionally foretelling future events. In a different interpretation, it means
advocate or speaker (Wikipedia).
It is also the beginning of the Pharisees a School opposed to the Sadducees in the
interpretation of the Torah. Sadducees recognized only the Written Torah
literally, and Pharisees developed a larger interpretation that included for
instance the belief in the resurrection of the dead, that was denied by
Sadducees. They had a higher intellectual level. Pharisaic beliefs became the
foundational, liturgical, and ritualistic basis for Rabbinic Judaism (Talmudic). The Talmud is the developed interpretation (exegesis) of the
Torah.
The Talmud (Torah) is the “study” or “learning” of the first 5 books
of the Jewish Bible (the Pentateuch) which form the Torah (the Law of God
given to Moses). It includes the teachings,
opinions and discussions of thousands of Torah Scholars (Rabbis) based in the part of the
Oral Torah compiled in the Mishnah and
its commentaries (Gemara). There are two Talmud versions: a short one
finished in Jerusalem (Jerusalem Talmud) between the end of the 4th and the
beginning of the 5th century and in Babylonia (Babylonian Talmud, or Balvi)
compiled in the 6th century AD. The second one is the most extensive.
The Talmud is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and second in authority only to the
Hebrew Bible. It is a primary source of Jewish Law (Halakha) and Jewish
theology. The Talmud was the centrepiece of Jewish Culture in nearly all
communities and foundational to "all Jewish thought and aspirations",
serving also as "the guide for the daily life" of Jews. (Extracted
from Wikipedia)
Thanks to the Talmud the Jewish religion
and culture were preserved through the long Diaspora (2nd to 20th
centuries AD).
539 Cyrus of Persia conquers Babylon and
allows the Jews to return to Jerusalem. Many of them prefer to remain in
Babylon.
The Second Temple Period (515 BC to 135
AD).
515 BC The
Temple is reconstructed. The Jews
celebrate their first Passover in Jerusalem after the Babylonian
Exile.
350 The Jewish Bible (Old Testament) is completed.
334 Alexander the Great conquers
Jerusalem. Start the hellenization of
Palestine.
198 Judah becomes part of the Seleucid Empire (Diadochi).
167-160 Maccabean Revolt against the Empire of the Seleucid and the
strengthening of Hellenization. It is the origin of Hannukah celebration.
The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew meaning "to
dedicate", because on Hanukkah, the Maccabees Jews regained control of
Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple. Hanukkah lasts for eight nights and days. Each night is marked by lighting a Hanukkah Menorah, a nine-branched candelabrum
containing spaces for eight ceremonial lights plus one additional candle, the
shámash (שַׁמָּשׁ,
'attendant'), which is used to light the others. Hanukkah has attained major
cultural significance in the Western world and elsewhere, especially among
secular Jews, as it often falls during the Christmas holyday season Among
American Jews this chronological proximity also contributed to the seasonal
gift-giving practice (Wikipedia).
63 Pompey
conquers Jerusalem. Judah becomes a Roman Province, but with a great
autonomy. They have their own kings. The Romans establish a sort of Protectorate. Total control would be
achieved in 6 AD. Jews believe that a Messiah
would deliver them from the Romans.
37-4 Reign
of King Herod the Great. A Roman Jewish client king of Judea.
6 BC Jesus birth in Nazareth.
26 AD Crucifixion of Jesus from Nazareth in Jerusalem
condemned by a Jewish jurisdiction and executed by the Roman soldiers.
66 Big
Jewish rebellion against Roman Rule.
70 The
Roman Emperor Titus conquers Jerusalem
and destroy the Temple for the Second time.
73-74 Siege of Masada. Last Rebellious Jews.
132 Second Jewish rebellion against Roman
Rule. Bar Koshba reconquers Jerusalem.
135 Emperor
Hadrian reconquers Jerusalem. End of the Jewish presence in Palestine.
Begins the second Diaspora. The Jews will not be governing again
Palestine until the creation of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948.
B) History of Christianism
5-65 AD Paul of Tarsus (Letters: “Epistles”,
the oldest writings of the New Testament). He will start the Chruch despite the
fact that he was not one of the original followers of Christ: Apostles.
An apostle, in its literal sense, is an
emissary. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek word “Apóstolos”),
literally: "one who is sent off", itself derived from the verb
“apostollein”: "to send off". The purpose of such sending off is
usually to convey a message, and
thus "messenger" is a common alternative translation; other common
translations include ambassador and envoy. Apostles for Christians are the
people who are sent to convert non
Christians. Today’s apostles are the “missionaries”, the elite of
Catholicism.
50-90 The
Gospels are written (Matthew, Mark,
Luke –who also wrote the Acts of the Apostles- and John –who also wrote the
Book of Revelation or Apocalypse).
"Gospel" originates from the Old
English gōdspel, a compound of gōd ("good") and spell ("story,
message" or "news"), literally meaning "good news".
This is a direct translation of the ecclesiastical Greek word euangelion ( = good; =
message/messenger), referring to the "good news" of salvation in
Jesus Christ.
54-68 Nero
emperor. First Christian martyrs.
The Roman Emperors do not accept that Christ is more important than them for
Christians. They fear a rebellion against Imperial authority.
100 Death
of John the Evangelist (born in 6 AD).
284-305 Diocletian emperor. Last persecutions of Christians.
From Christians to Catholics
313 Edict of Milan. Emperor Constantine
gives Christianity legal status and a reprieve from persecution. In exchange he
tries to control the Church (Caesaropapism).
325 Council of Nicea. Bishops condemns
Aryanism (Jesus Christ is not of the same nature as God the Father, so it is
not divine). Germans converted initially to Aryanism. Gothic Bible of
Ulfila (311-383), first text in Germanic language.
380 Edict of Thesalonica. By decision of
Theodosius I, Christianism becomes the official (and only) religion of the
Roman Empire. Christianism becomes
“Catholicism” as “universal” religion of the universal Empire.
496 Clovis converts to Catholicism. Most of
the others Germanic kings would do the same. The church as the heir of the
Roman Empire favours the stability of political power of kings.
589 Reccared, king of the Visigoths, converts
to Catholicism.
590-604 Pope Gregory I the Great significantly bolsters the authority of the Church of Rome over all of
Christendom. He is the first pope that considers himself the successor of Roman emperors decides to preach Christianity among the Germanic
people that settled in the different parts of the extinct West Roman
Empire. He sends a mission for Christianizing Anglo-Saxon England. The first Anglo-Saxon king to be baptized is Aethelbert, King of Kent (c. 590-616).
The Church as the heir of the Roman Empire favours the creation of Anglo-Saxon
Kingdoms. There are soon seven autonomous kingdoms: the HEPTARCHY: Wessex, East
Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria (divided in two sub-kingdoms: Bernicia and
Deira); Kent, Sussex and Essex. Saint
Patrick would preach the Gospel in Ireland.
732 Charles Martel defeats the Muslims at
Poitiers Battle and wields de facto power in
the kingdom of the Franks.
751 Pope
Zacharias authorizes St. Boniface to crown
Pepin the Short (Charles Martel’s son) as the legitimate King of the Franks
at Soissons, which means dethroning Childeric III, the last Merovingian
king.
754 Promissio
carisiaca. Under this treaty Pope Stephen II commits to anointing Pepin
the Short as the king of the Franks and “Patrician of the Romans.” The Frankish
monarch recognizes the Pope’s
territorial domain over the Duchy of Rome, Exarchate and Pentapolis – the
legal/territorial title making possible the emergence of the Papal States.
800 Charlemagne (son of Pepin the Short) is
crowned emperor by Pope Leo III.
841 June
25: the Battle of Fontenoy in Puisaye.
The defeat of Lothair, the eldest son of Louis the Pious, by
his brothers Charles and Louis.
843 Treaty of Verdun. The
Empire of Charlemagne is divided.
911 Conrad
I is elected the first king of Germany.
962 Otto I, Duke of Saxony, is crowned
Emperor. He is the founder of the German Holy Roman Empire (1st
Reich), which would last until 1806.
987-996Hugh Capet succeeds in leaving his
throne to his son. Consolidation of the hereditary dynasty in the Kingdom of the Franks and
separation from of the Empire.
1054 July
16. The Eastern Schism.
Michael Cerularius and Pope Leo IX excommunicate each other. Separation of the
Orthodox and Roman Churches.
The era of papal theocracy
1075 Gregory VII (1073-1085) promulgates the
Dictatus Papae, 27 statements in
which he asserts the pope’s supremacy over secular authorities. Gregorian Reform. This document was not
published in the German Holy Roman Empire, in the Iberian kingdoms, or in
England.
1077 Henry
IV humbles himself before Gregory VII at Canossa.
1096-1099 First Crusade.
1122 Concordat
of Worms. End of the Investiture Controversy.
1155-1190 Reign
of Frederick I Barbarossa.
1198-1216 Papacy
of Innocent III, the chief exponent
of papal theocracy.
1220-1250 Reign
of Frederick II Hohenstaufen.
1291-1293 Reign
of Rudolph I of Habsburg.
1274 Death
of Thomas Aquinas (b.
1225)
1303 September
7: The attack at Anagni. (Anagni’s Slap). Philip IV of France’s troops seize
Pope Boniface VIII
1309-1377 The
Avignon Papacy. The popes reside
outside Rome, in Avignon.
1378-1417 The
Western Schism. Multiple popes
vie for St. Peter’s throne.
Reformation and Counterreformation
1519 Charles
V is elected Emperor.
1521 Diet of Worms. Luther explains the principles of the
“Reformation” to Charles V.
1527 May
6. The troops of Charles V, sharply at odds with Clement VII, occupy and
sack Rome (Sacco di Roma). The popes will never again meddle in
civil political affairs.
1529 In the Diet of Spires the Lutheran princes “protest” against Charles
V’s request for them to submit to the Pope’s authority. They come to call
themselves “Protestants.”
1534 Act
of Supremacy. Henry VIII of England
breaks with Rome when Clement VII refuses to annul his marriage to
Catherine of Aragon (Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughter). The king
declares himself the head of the Church of England. The Anglican Church is
born.
1540 September
27: Pope Paul III accepts the creation of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius
of Loyola. The Jesuits become Catholicism’s quintessential advocates
and defenders especially during the Council
of Trent (1545-1563).
1555 Peace of Augsburg. Each German
prince may profess the religion he desires, and has the right to impose it upon
his subjects (cuis regio eius religio).
1572 24
August. Slaughter of Protestants in Paris (St.
Bartholomew’s Day Massacre). The most dramatic episode of France’s
Wars of Religion (1562-1598).
1618-1648 Thirty Years War.
At its close Europe is divided into Catholic and Protestant
kingdoms.
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Papacy and Empire: From the French
Revolution to the Third Reich
1790 July
12. Civil constitution of the
clergy. The French revolutionaries seek to convert the Catholic
priests into government officials of the new French state, prompting a break
with Rome.
1793 October.
Publication of the French revolutionary
calendar, with no reference to the traditional church calendar
(Gregorian).
1794 June
8. Robespierre celebrates the Festival of the Supreme Being.
1801 Napoleon
signs a Concordat with the Pope and reconciles with French
Catholics.
1804 December
2. Napoleon crowns himself “Emperor
of the French” in the presence of Pope Pius VII in Paris, at the Cathedral
of Notre Dame.
1806 Francis II abolishes the German Holy Roman
Empire.
1849, 9 February Roman Republic take control of the Papal States. On July
French troops sent by Napoleon III restore Pius IX on the Roman throne.
1852-1870 Second French Empire (Napoleon III).
1870 September
20. Rome becomes the capital of
the Kingdom of Italy, after its military occupation. After the demise of
the Papal States, dating back to 754, Pope Pius IX describes himself as a
prisoner of the Italian State.
1871-1918 2nd German Reich headed by Prussia
(Bismarck).
1905 French Law of separation of the Church and
the State (Loi de separation des
Églises et de l’État).
1929 February
11. Lateran Pacts.
Mussolini and Pius XI agree to the founding of the Vatican State.
1933-1945 Hitler’s 3rd Reich.
c) Complete in your Class notebook the following exercises:
Judaism
Yahweh/ First Covenant (Abraham and
Isaac)/ Canaan/ Jacob-Israel/ Exodus/ Promised Land/ Tabernacle/ Arch of The
Covenant/ Dead Sea Scrolls/ Torah (Pentateuch) / Masoretes/ Septuagint /
Vulgate / Talmud / Palestine (Origin of the word)/ First Temple / Prophet /
Pharisees / Diaspora/ Rabinic Judaism / Hanukkah (Maccabean Revolt) / Menorah/
Passover /
Christianism
Jesus (meaning of Yeshua) / Christ/ Messiah / Beatitudes / Apostle/ Saint Paul’s Epistles/ Gospel / Evangelist/ Martyrs/ Edict of Milan/ Caesaropapism/ Emperor Julian/ Aryanism (Council of Nicea)/ Christianism vs Catholicism / Edict of Thesalonica/ / Dyonisius the Humble/ Pope Gregory I The Great/ Promissio Carisiaca / Papal States/ Treaty of Verdun (843)/ Eastern Schism/ Dictatus Papae / Excomunication/ Papal theocracy/ Decretals/ Thomas of Aquinas / Holy Roman Empire/ Kaiserzeit/ Attack at Anagni (Anagni Slap)/ Avignon Papacy / Western Schism / Sacco di Roma (1527)/ Anglican Church/ Society of Jesus / St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre/ Gallicanism/ Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)/ Festival of the Supreme Being (Robespierre) / French Revolutionary Calendar/ North German Confederation (Second Reich)/ Lateran Pacts
QUESTIONS:
Concrete questions
1. What is the relationship between the
Canaanites the Philistines and the Promised Land?
2. Explain the Jewish idea of “Covenant”.
Why it does give a “moral” sense to Jewish religion?
3. What is the relationship between the
Torah and the Talmud. Think of why and when appeared the Talmud, and why it is
important in Jewish History.
4. Why is Paul of Tarsus pivotal in the
history of Christianism?
5. Why Roman emperor, who usually did not
care about the religion of their citizens, considered Christians a danger?
6. Explain what was the doctrine of
Aryanism? Why it was important for the conversion of Germans to Christianism?
When was it condemned (Think of the mystery of the Holy Trinity).
7. When does Christianism become Catholicism?
Why?
8. Why the Pope Gregory I (590-604) is
important in the history of Catholic Church?
9. ¿Why did the Popes favoured the
creation of a Christian Medieval Empire. Explain the terms of the agreement (Promissio Carisiaca of 754) between the
Papacy and the Frankish sovereign Pepin the Short? Why was it beneficial to
both sides?
10. Why Charlemagne was not happy with the
Papacy after being crowned emperor in 800? Think of the relationship between
Popes and emperors, especially after the Gregorian Reform.
11. What was “excommunication” and why it
became a daunting political instrument in the hands of Papacy?
12. Why the Treaty of Verdun (843) is
considered by some historians the “birth certificate” of modern Europe?
13. Why the emperors of the Holy Roman
Empire hold essentially a symbolic title?
14. Why the Holy Roman Empire can be seen
in a way as a precedent of the European Union?
15. What was the Gregorian Reform of the
11th century and why it was important for the papacy? Mention the terms “Dictatus Papae” and Papal
Theocracy.
16. Why the figure of the catholic scholar
Thomas of Aquinas was essential for the European civilization?
17. Why did Henry VIII of England decide
to create its own church (Anglican) in which he was the head? What is the
difference between Anglicanism and French Gallicanism?
General questions
1. Describe the process of how the Bible
has reached us in its actual version. Mention the Dead Sea Scrolls, the
Masoretes, the Torah or Pentateuch and the rest of the books of the Old
Testament and the writings of the New Testament. Then how and why was the
biblical text translated to Greek (Septuagint) and to Latin (Vulgate).
2. Which were the consequences of the
First Jewish Diaspora? Mention the prophets, the Pharisees, Rabbinic Judaism
and Talmud.
3. What is the Jewish Talmud and why it
was crucial during the long second Jewish Diaspora (2nd to 20th
centuries)?
4. Explain why the Christian Empires
(Charlemagne’s and the Holy Roman Empire differ from the Roman Empire.
5. How many empires existed in European
history between 800 and 1945?
6. What are the 5 essential contributions
that Christianism brought to the European-Western Culture?
